劍橋雅思閱讀4原文翻譯及答案解析(test3)

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劍橋雅思閱讀4原文(test3)

READING PASSAGE 1

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13 which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.

Micro-Enterprise Credit for Street Youth

‘I am from a large, poor family and for many years we have done without breakfast. Ever since I joined the Street Kids International program I have been able to buy my family sugar and buns for breakfast. I have also bought myself decent second-hand clothes and shoes.’

Doreen Soko

‘We’ve had business experience. Now I’m confident to expand what we’ve been doing. I’ve learnt cash management, and the way of keeping money so we save for re-investment. Now business is a part of our lives. As well, we didn’t know each other before — now we’ve made new friends.’

Fan Kaoma

Participants in the Youth Skills Enterprise Initiative Program, Zambia

Introduction

Although small-scale business training and credit programs have become more common throughout the world, relatively little attention has been paid to the need to direct such opportunities to young people. Even less attention has been paid to children living on the street or in difficult circumstances.

Over the past nine years, Street Kids International (S.K.I.) has been working with partner organisations in Africa, Latin America and India to support the economic lives of street children. The purpose of this paper is to share some of the lessons S.K.I. and our partners have learned.

Background

Typically, children do not end up on the streets due to a single cause, but to a combination of factors: a dearth of adequately funded schools, the demand for income at home, family breakdown and violence. The street may be attractive to children as a place to find adventurous play and money. However, it is also a place where some children are exposed, with little or no protection, to exploitative employment, urban crime, and abuse.

Children who work on the streets are generally involved in unskilled, labour-intensive tasks which require long hours, such as shining shoes, carrying goods, guarding or washing cars, and informal trading. Some may also earn income through begging, or through theft and other illegal activities. At the same time, there are street children who take pride in supporting themselves and their families and who often enjoy their work. Many children may choose entrepreneurship because it allows them a degree of independence, is less exploitative than many forms of paid employment, and is flexible enough to allow them to participate in other activities such as education and domestic tasks.

Street Business Partnerships

S.K.I. has worked with partner organisations in Latin America, Africa and India to develop innovative opportunities for street children to earn income.

? The S.K.I. Bicycle Courier Service first started in the Sudan. Participants in this enterprise were supplied with bicycles, which they used to deliver parcels and messages, and which they were required to pay for gradually from their wages. A similar program was taken up in Bangalore, India.

? Another successful project, The Shoe Shine Collective, was a partnership program with the Y.W.C.A. in the Dominican Republic. In this project, participants were lent money to purchase shoe shine boxes. They were also given a safe place to store their equipment, and facilities for individual savings plans.

? The Youth Skills Enterprise Initiative in Zambia is a joint program with the Red Cross Society and the Y.W.C.A. Street youths are supported to start their own small business through business training, life skills training and access to credit.

Lessons learned

The following lessons have emerged from the programs that S.K.I. and partner organisations have created.

? Being an entrepreneur is not for everyone, nor for every street child. Ideally, potential participants will have been involved in the organisation’s programs for at least six months, and trust and relationship-building will have already been established.

? The involvement of the participants has been essential to the development of relevant programs. When children have had a major role in determining procedures, they are more likely to abide by and enforce them.

? It is critical for all loans to be linked to training programs that include the development of basic business and life skills.

? There are tremendous advantages to involving parents or guardians in the program, where such relationships exist. Home visits allow staff the opportunity to know where the participants live, and to understand more about each individual’s situation.

? Small loans are provided initially for purchasing fixed assets such as bicycles, shoe shine kits and basic building materials for a market stall. As the entrepreneurs gain experience, the enterprises can be gradually expanded and consideration can be given to increasing loan amounts. The loan amounts in S.K.I. programs have generally ranged from US$30-$100.

? All S.K.I. programs have charged interest on the loans, primarily to get the entrepreneurs used to the concept of paying interest on borrowed money. Generally the rates have been modest (lower than bank rates).

Conclusion

There is a need to recognise the importance of access to credit for impoverished young people seeking to fulfil economic needs. The provision of small loans to support the entrepreneurial dreams and ambitions of youth can be an effective means to help them change their lives. However, we believe that credit must be extended in association with other Types of support that help participants develop critical life skills as well as productive businesses.

Questions 1-4

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

Write your answers in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.

1 The quotations in the box at the beginning of the article

A exemplify the effects of S.K.I.

B explain why S.K.I. was set up.

C outline the problems of street children.

D highlight the benefits to society of S.K.I.

2 The main purpose of S.K.I. is to

A draw the attention of governments to the problem of street children.

B provide school and social support for street children.

C encourage the public to give money to street children.

D give business training and loans to street children.

3 Which of the following is mentioned by the writer as a reason why children end up living on the streets?

A unemployment

B war

C poverty

D crime

4 In order to become more independent, street children may

A reject paid employment.

B leave their families.

C set up their own businesses.

D employ other children.

Questions 5-8

Complete the table below.

Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage 1 for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 5-8 on your answer sheet.

Country Organisations Involved Type of Project Support Provided

5………………

and………………

? S.K.I courier service ? provision of 6………………………

Dominican Republic ? S.K.I

? Y.W.C.A 7………………… ? loans

? storage facilities

? savings plans

Zambia ? S.K.I.

? The Red Cross

? Y.W.C.A. setting up small businesses ? business training

? 8…………training

? access to credit

Questions 9-12

Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 1?

In boxes 9-12 on your answer sheet write

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the wirter

NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer

NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

9 Any street child can set up their own small business if given enough support.

10 In some cases, the families of street children may need financial support from S.K.I.

11 Only one fixed loan should be given to each child.

12 The children have to pay back slightly more money than they borrowed.

Question 13

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

Write your answer in box 13 on your answer sheet.

The writers conclude that money should only be lent to street children

A as part of a wider program of aid.

B for programs that are not too ambitious.

C when programs are supported by local businesses.

D if the projects planned are realistic and useful.

READING PASSAGE 2

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26 which are based on Reading Passage 2 on the following pages.

Questions 14-27

Reading Passage 2 has four sections A-D.

Choose the correct heading for each section from the list of headings below.

Write the correct number i-vi in boxes 14-17 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings

I Causes of volcanic eruption

Ii Efforts to predict volcanic eruption

Iii Volcanoes and the features of our planet

Iv Different types of volcanic eruption

V International relief efforts

Vi The unpredictability of volcanic eruptions

14 Section A

15 Section B

16 Section C

17 Section D

Volcanoes-earth-shattering news

When Mount Pinatubo suddenly erupted on 9 June 1991, the power of volcanoes past and present again hit the headlines

A Volcanoes are the ultimate earth-moving machinery. A violent eruption can blow the top few kilometres off a mountain, scatter fine ash practically all over the globe and hurl rock fragments into the stratosphere to darken the skies a continent away.

But the classic eruption — cone-shaped mountain, big bang, mushroom cloud and surges of molten lava — is only a tiny part of a global story. Vulcanism, the name given to volcanic processes, really has shaped the world. Eruptions have rifted continents, raised mountain chains, constructed islands and shaped the topography of the earth. The entire ocean floor has a basement of volcanic basalt.

Volcanoes have not only made the continents, they are also thought to have made the world’s first stable atmosphere and provided all the water for the oceans, rivers and ice-caps. There are now about 600 active volcanoes. Every year they add two or three cubic kilometres of rock to the continents. Imagine a similar number of volcanoes smoking away for the last 3,500 million years. That is enough rock to explain the continental crust.

What comes out of volcanic craters is mostly gas. More than 90% of this gas is water vapour from the deep earth: enough to explain, over 3,500 million years, the water in the oceans. The rest of the gas is nitrogen, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, methane, ammonia and hydrogen. The quantity of these gases, again multiplied over 3,500 million years, is enough to explain the mass of the world’s atmosphere. We are alive because volcanoes provided the soil, air and water we need.

B Geologists consider the earth as having a molten core, surrounded by a semi-molten mantle and a brittle, outer skin. It helps to think of a soft-boiled egg with a runny yolk, a firm but squishy white and a hard shell. If the shell is even slightly cracked during boiling, the white material bubbles out and sets like a tiny mountain chain over the crack — like an archipelago of volcanic islands such as the Hawaiian Islands. But the earth is so much bigger and the mantle below is so much hotter.

Even though the mantle rocks are kept solid by overlying pressure, they can still slowly ‘flow’ like thick treacle. The flow, thought to be in the form of convection currents, is powerful enough to fracture the ‘eggshell’ of the crust into plates, and keep them bumping and grinding against each other, or even overlapping, at the rate of a few centimetres a year. These fracture zones, where the collisions occur, are where earthquakes happen. And, very often, volcanoes.

C These zones are lines of weakness, or hot spots. Every eruption is different, but put at its simplest, where there are weaknesses, rocks deep in the mantle, heated to 1,350℃, will start to expand and rise. As they do so, the pressure drops, and they expand and become liquid and rise more swiftly.

Sometimes it is slow: vast bubbles of magma — molten rock from the mantle — inch towards the surface, cooling slowly, to show through as granite extrusions (as on Skye, or the Great Whin Sill, the lava dyke squeezed out like toothpaste that carries part of Hadrian’s Wall in northern England). Sometimes — as in Northern Ireland, Wales and the Karoo in South Africa — the magma rose faster, and then flowed out horizontally on to the surface in vast thick sheets. In the Deccan plateau in western India, there are more than two million cubic kilometres of lava, some of it 2,400 metres thick, formed over 500,000 years of slurping eruption.

Sometimes the magma moves very swiftly indeed. It does not have time to cool as it surges upwards. The gases trapped inside the boiling rock expand suddenly, the lava glows with heat, it begins to froth, and it explodes with tremendous force. Then the slightly cooler lava following it begins to flow over the lip of the crater. It happens on Mars, it happened on the moon, it even happens on some of the moons of Jupiter and Uranus. By studying the evidence, vulcanologists can read the force of the great blasts of the past. Is the pumice light and full of holes? The explosion was tremendous. Are the rocks heavy, with huge crystalline basalt shapes, like the Giant’s Causeway in Northern Ireland? It was a slow, gentle eruption.

The biggest eruptions are deep on the mid-ocean floor, where new lava is forcing the continents apart and widening the Atlantic by perhaps five centimetres a year. Look at maps of volcanoes, earthquakes and island chains like the Philippines and Japan, and you can see the rough outlines of what are called tectonic plates — the plates which make up the earth’s crust and mantle. The most dramatic of these is the Pacific ‘ring of fire’ where there have been the most violent explosions — Mount Pinatubo near Manila, Mount St Helen’s in the Rockies and El Chichón in Mexico about a decade ago, not to mention world-shaking blasts like Krakatoa in the Sunda Straits in 1883.

D But volcanoes are not very predictable. That is because geological time is not like human time. During quiet periods, volcanoes cap themselves with their own lava by forming a powerful cone from the molten rocks slopping over the rim of the crater; later the lava cools slowly into a huge, hard, stable plug which blocks any further eruption until the pressure below becomes irresistible. In the case of Mount Pinatubo, this took 600 years.

Then, sometimes, with only a small warning, the mountain blows its top. It did this at Mont Pelée in Martinique at 7.49 a.m. on 8 May, 1902. Of a town of 28,000, only two people survived. In 1815, a sudden blast removed the top 1,280 metres of Mount Tambora in Indonesia. The eruption was so fierce that dust thrown into the stratosphere darkened the skies, cancelling the following summer in Europe and North America. Thousands starved as the harvests failed, after snow in June and frosts in August. Volcanoes are potentially world news, especially the quiet ones.

Questions 18-21

Answer the questions below using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 18-21 on your answer sheet.

18 What are the sections of the earth’s crust, often associated with volcanic activity, called?

19 What is the name given to molten rock from the mantle?

20 What is the earthquake zone on the Pacific Ocean called?

21 For how many years did Mount Pinatubo remain inactive?

Questions 22-26

Complete the summary below.

Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 22-26 on your answer sheet.

Volcanic eruptions have shaped the earth’s land surface. They may also have produced the world’s atmosphere and 22…… . Eruptions occur when molten rocks from the earth’s mantle rise and expand. When they become liquid, they move quickly through cracks in the surface. There are different types of eruption. Sometimes the 23……. moves slowly and forms outcrops of granite on the earth’s surface. When it moves more quickly it may flow out in thick horizontal sheets. Examples of this type of eruption can be found in Northern Ireland, Wales, South Africa and 24…… . A third type of eruption occurs when the lava emerges very quickly and 25…… violently. This happens because the magma moves so suddenly that 26…… are emitted.

READING PASSAGE 3

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40 which are based on Reading Passage 3 below

Obtaining Linguistic Data

A Many procedures are available for obtaining data about a language. They range from a carefully planned, intensive field investigation in a foreign country to a casual introspection about one’s mother tongue carried out in an armchair at home.

B In all cases, someone has to act as a source of language data — an informant. Informants are (ideally) native speakers of a language, who provide utterances for analysis and other kinds of information about the language (e.g. translations, comments about correctness, or judgements on usage). Often, when studying their mother tongue, linguists act as their own informants, judging the ambiguity, acceptability, or other properties of utterances against their own intuitions. The convenience of this approach makes it widely used, and it is considered the norm in the generative approach to linguistics. But a linguist’s personal judgements are often uncertain, or disagree with the judgements of other linguists, at which point recourse is needed to more objective methods of enquiry, using non-linguists as informants. The latter procedure is unavoidable when working on foreign languages, or child speech.

C Many factors must be considered when selecting informants — whether one is working with single speakers (a common situation when languages have not been described before), two people interacting, small groups or large-scale samples. Age, sex, social background and other aspects of identity are important, as these factors are known to influence the kind of language used. The topic of conversation and the characteristics of the social setting (e.g. the level of formality) are also highly relevant, as are the personal qualities of the informants (e.g. their fluency and consistency). For larger studies, scrupulous attention has been paid to the sampling theory employed, and in all cases, decisions have to be made about the best investigative techniques to use.

D Today, researchers often tape-record informants. This enables the linguist’s claims about the language to be checked, and provides a way of making those claims more accurate (‘difficult’ pieces of speech can be listened to repeatedly). But obtaining naturalistic, good-quality data is never easy. People talk abnormally when they know they are being recorded, and sound quality can be poor. A variety of tape-recording procedures have thus been devised to minimise the ‘observer’s paradox’ (how to observe the way people behave when they are not being observed). Some recordings are made without the speakers being aware of the fact — a procedure that obtains very natural data, though ethical objections must be anticipated. Alternatively, attempts can be made to make the speaker forget about the recording, such as keeping the tape recorder out of sight, or using radio microphones. A useful technique is to introduce a topic that quickly involves the speaker, and stimulates a natural language style (e.g. asking older informants about how times have changed in their locality).

E An audio tape recording does not solve all the linguist’s problems, however. Speech is often unclear and ambiguous. Where possible, therefore, the recording has to be supplemented by the observer’s written comments on the non-verbal behaviour of the participants, and about the context in general. A facial expression, for example, can dramatically alter the meaning of what is said. Video recordings avoid these problems to a large extent, but even they have limitations (the camera cannot be everywhere), and transcriptions always benefit from any additional commentary provided by an observer.

F Linguists also make great use of structured sessions, in which they systematically ask their informants for utterances that describe certain actions, objects or behaviours. With a bilingual informant, or through use of an interpreter, it is possible to use translation techniques (‘How do you say table in your language?’). A large number of points can be covered in a short time, using interview worksheets and questionnaires. Often, the researcher wishes to obtain information about just a single variable, in which case a restricted set of questions may be used: a particular feature of pronunciation, for example, can be elicited by asking the informant to say a restricted set of words. There are also several direct methods of elicitation, such as asking informants to fill in the blanks in a substitution frame (e.g. I___ see a car), or feeding them the wrong stimulus for correction (‘Is it possible to say I no can see?’).

G A representative sample of language, compiled for the purpose of linguistic analysis, is known as a corpus. A corpus enables the linguist to make unbiased statements about frequency of usage, and it provides accessible data for the use of different researchers. Its range and size are variable. Some corpora attempt to cover the language as a whole, taking extracts from many kinds of text; others are extremely selective, providing a collection of material that deals only with a particular linguistic feature. The size of the corpus depends on practical factors, such as the time available to collect, process and store the data: it can take up to several hours to provide an accurate transcription of a few minutes of speech. Sometimes a small sample of data will be enough to decide a linguistic hypothesis; by contrast, corpora in major research projects can total millions of words. An important principle is that all corpora, whatever their size, are inevitably limited in their coverage, and always need to be supplemented by data derived from the intuitions of native speakers of the language, through either introspection or experimentation.

Questions 27-31

Reading Passage 3 has seven paragraphs labeled A-G.

Which paragraph contains the following information?

Write the correct letter A-G in boxes 27-31 on your answer sheet.

NB You may use any letter more than once.

27 the effect of recording on the way people talk

28 the importance of taking notes on body language

29 the fact that language is influenced by social situation

30 how informants can be helped to be less self-conscious

31 various methods that can be used to generate specific data

Questions 32-36

Complete the table below.

Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 32-36 on your answer sheet.

METHODS OF OBTAINING LINGUISTIC DATA ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

32……as informant convenient method of enquiry not objective enough

Non-linguist as informant necessary with 33…… and child speech the number of factors to be considered

Recording an informant allows linguists’ claims to be checked 34……of sound

Videoing an informant allows speakers’ 35…… to be observed 36……might miss certain things

Questions 37-40

Complete the summary of paragraph G below.

Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet.

A linguist can use a corpus to comment objectively on 37…… . Some corpora include a wide range of language while others are used to focus on a 38…… . The length of time the process takes will affect the 39…… of the corpus. No corpus can ever cover the whole language and so linguists often find themselves relying on the additional information that can be gained from the 40…… of those who speak the language concerned.

　劍橋雅思閱讀4原文參考譯文(test3)

Passage1

參考譯文

Micro-Enterprise Credit for Street Youth

流浪兒童的小型企業貸款

Doreen Soko

“我來自一個貧困的大家庭。我們已經很多年沒吃過早餐了。自從加人了國際流浪兒童組織，早飯我們就吃得起糖和麪包了。我還給自己買了體面的二手服裝和二手鞋子。”

DOREEN SOKO

Fan Kaoma

“我們有經商的經驗。現在我非常有信心擴大我的生意。我學過現金管理以及節省開支的方法，所以現在存了些錢進行再投資。生意已經成了我生活的一部分。還有，以前我們素不相識——現在，我們已經交到了很多新朋友。”

FAN KAOMA

Participants in the Youth Skills Enterprise Initiative Program, Zambia

贊比亞青年創業計劃的參與人

Introduction

簡介

儘管在世界範圍內，小型企業培訓及貸款計劃已經越來越普遍，然而相對而言，很少有人注意到年輕人也需要獲得這樣的機會。更少的人會去留意那些無家可歸或家境貧困的孩子。

在過去的九年裏，國際流浪兒童組織已經與非洲、拉丁美洲以及印度的夥伴組織進行合作，來改善流浪兒童的經濟狀況。此文的目的主要是爲了和大家分享一下他們所總結的經驗教訓。

Background

背景

通常來講，兒童流離失所並非由某個原因造成，而是若干因素綜合所致：比如缺乏擁有足夠資金的學校，家裏等着用錢，父母離異以及家庭暴力等。對於孩子來講，街道可能是個令人着迷的地方，充滿了冒險遊戲和賺錢機會。然而，由於缺乏或根本沒有保護，有些孩子在那裏遭到剝削，遭遇暴力事件甚至虐待。

在街頭工作的孩子們通常都是從事一些無需技術但工作時間超長的勞動力密集型工作，比如擦鞋，搬運貨物、門童或冼車，以及不正規交易。有些孩子甚至通過乞討或幹盜竊等非法勾當來賺錢。同時，也有些流浪兒童以能夠養活自己和家人而自豪，而且他們很喜歡所做的工作。許多孩子會選擇做生意是因爲那可以使他們相對獨立一些，而且做生意也比做其他許多有償工作要少受一些壓榨;生意的靈活性還使他們有時間去參與其他活動，比如上學或是做家務。

Street Business Partnerships

流浪兒童就業互助計劃

S.K.I. has worked with partner organisations in Latin America, Africa and India to develop innovative opportunities for street children to earn income.

國際流浪兒童組織與拉丁美洲、非洲及印度的夥伴組織合作，開發了讓流浪兒童賺錢的新機會。

?國際流浪兒童組織速遞服務首先在蘇丹展開。這項計劃爲參與者提供自行車用以遞送包裹或信件，買自行車的錢會從參與者的工資中一點一點扣除。在印度的班加羅爾，一項類似的計劃也已經展開。

?在多米尼加共和國，一項與__女青年會合作，名爲擦鞋合作社的計劃也已經成功展開。這項計劃借錢給參與者購買擦鞋箱，還給他們提供一個安全的地方來放置擦鞋工具，同時還提供了供他們存錢的設備。

?贊比亞的青年創業計劃是與紅十字協會以及__女青年會合辦的項自。通過商務培訓、生存技能訓練以及提供貸款機會等方式，該項目的參與者得以開辦自己的小生意。

Lessons learned

The following lessons have emerged from the programs that S.K.I. and partner organisations have created.

經驗教訓

在國際流浪兒童組織的計劃實施過程中，出現了下列教訓：

?不是每個人都是做生意的料，流浪兒童也一樣。理想狀態下，孩子們至少應該參與計劃六個月以上，這樣雙方之間可以建立起信任關係。

?參與者的投入對於建立相關計劃十分重要。如果孩子們在制定規程過程中起到關鍵作用，他們就更可能去遵守並執行這些規定。

? It is critical for all loans to be linked to training programs that include the development of basic business and life skills.

?關鍵是所有的貸款都要與培訓計劃眹系起來，培訓計劃應該包括基本商業技能及生存技能的開發。

?如果條件允許的話，容許家長或監護人蔘與計劃是十分有好處的。家訪使工作人員有機會知曉孩子們的住址，並且可以更好地瞭解每個人所處的環境。

?開始的時候應該給孩子們提供一些小額貸款，以便他們購買如自行車、擦鞋設備以及市場攤位的原材料等固定資產。當從業者有了經驗之後，就可以考慮擴大生意規模，並且考慮提髙貸款金額。國際流浪兒童組織計劃中的貸款額度通常在30到100美元不等。

?國際流浪兒童組織所有的計劃都會對貸款收取利息。這樣做的主要目的是使貸款人習慣爲借來的錢支付利息。通常來講，這種利息都很低(一般低於銀行利率)。

Conclusion

There is a need to recognise the importance of access to credit for impoverished young people seeking to fulfil economic needs. The provision of small loans to support the entrepreneurial dreams and ambitions of youth can be an effective means to help them change their lives. However, we believe that credit must be extended in association with other types of support that help participants develop critical life skills as well as productive businesses.

結論

我們需要認識到，爲貧困的年輕人提供貸款以滿足他們的經濟需求是十分重要的。通過提供小額貸款，實現年輕人的經商夢，是幫助他們改變人生的有效途徑。然而，我們認爲貸款必須與其他形式的援助一起開展，才能幫助年輕人在生意興隆的同時，發展出其他關鍵的生存技巧。

Passage2

參考譯文

Volcanoes-earth-shattering news

When Mount Pinatubo suddenly erupted on 9 June 1991, the power of volcanoes past and present again hit the headlines.

火山——驚天動地大消息

1991年6月9日，Pinatubo火山突然爆發，結果，有關過去和現在火山爆發威力的文：章再度登上了報紙的頭版。

A火山就是終極“移山倒海”的機器。一次猛烈的噴發可以把一座山的山頭轟掉幾千米，將細灰幾乎灑遍全世界，把岩石碎片拋進平流層，遮蔽整個大洲的天空。

But the classic eruption — cone-shaped mountain, big bang, mushroom cloud and surges of molten lava — is only a tiny part of a global story. Volcanism, the name given to volcanic processes, really has shaped the world. Eruptions have rifted continents, raised mountain chains, constructed islands and shaped the topography of the earth. The entire ocean floor has a basement of volcanic basalt.

然而，這種典型的噴發——錐形山體，轟隆巨響，蘑菇雲升起，熔岩噴涌——只是長篇故事中的一小章。火山作用，這個由火山活動而來的名詞，的確塑造了我們的世界。火山噴發撕裂大陸，舉起山脈，構築島嶼，最終造就了整個世界地形。五大洋的海底基岩就是火山噴發形成的玄武岩。

火山不僅造就了大陸，也許還造就了地球上第一個穩定的大氣層，並且爲大洋、河流以及冰川提供了水資源。現在全球有600多座活火山。這些火山每年都要爲地球增加兩、三立方公里的岩石。想像一下，過去3,500年中這600多座火山一直在噴發，這些岩石就足夠解釋地殼是如何形成的了。

從火山口噴發出來的主要是氣體。其中有90%是來自地心深處的水蒸氣：火山一連噴發了3,500年，這就足夠解釋大洋中的水是從哪裏來的了。其餘氣體有氮氣、二氧化碳、二氧化硫、甲烷、氨氣以及氫氣。同樣經過了3,500年的積累，這些氣體的量就足以解釋大氣層之“大”了。我們能活着，正是因爲火山提供了我們需要的土壤、空氣和水。

B地質學家認爲地球有一個熔化的核心，周圍是半熔化的地幔，外邊是一層脆脆的外皮。想像一個半熟的雞蛋會有些幫助——流淌的蛋黃，堅實但又黏稠的蛋清，還有一層堅硬的蛋殼。在煮的時候，蛋殼只要有一點點開裂，蛋淸就會噗噗地冒出來，在裂縫周圍形成一座小小的山脈——就像夏威夷羣島那樣的火山羣島。只是地球大得多，裏面的地幔也燙得多。

儘管在上層壓力下地幔是固態的，但是它們仍然可以像蜜糖一樣“流淌”。這種流動據信是以對流形式進行的，力量足以使地殼這“蛋殼”破裂成板塊，並且使這些板塊互相碰撞摩擦，甚至使它們以一年數釐米的速度互相重疊。這些破碎的地方正是碰撞發生的地方，也是地震發生之處，通常也是火山出現的地方。

C這些區域正是脆質帶，也就是地震多發區。每次噴發都不盡相同，但是簡而言之，在脆弱的地方，地幔深處的岩石被加熱到1,350攝氏度，並開始膨脹上升。當地幔變化的時候，壓力就會減小，因此地幔就開始膨脹並變成液體，然後迅速上漲。

有時候噴發很慢：岩漿——地幔中熔化的岩石——的巨大氣泡慢慢接近地表，慢慢變冷，最後作爲花崗岩突起顯露出來。(在斯凱島和大玄武岩山，熔岩堤壩像牙膏一樣擠出來，延伸成爲英格蘭北部哈德良長城的一部分。)有時候——比如在北愛爾蘭，威爾士以及南非的乾旱臺地卡魯——岩漿上升得很快，然後以大厚塊的形式水平地涌上地面。在印度西部的德千髙原，經過超過50萬年咕嘟咕嘟的火山噴發，積累了超過200萬立方公里的熔岩，其中有些厚達2，400米。

有時候岩漿移動得十分迅速。在向上噴涌的過程中沒有時間冷卻。沸騰的岩石中所包含的氣體突然膨脹，熔岩因爲受熱而閃閃發光，岩漿開始冒泡，接着以巨大的力量爆發。然後，下面稍微涼一點的熔岩開始漫出火山口。這種情形曾經發生在火星上，也曾經發生在月球上，甚至在木星和天王星的衛星上也曾經出現過。通過研究這些證據，火山學家們得以瞭解過去大噴發的威力。輕石是不是很輕並且充滿孔洞?其噴發的力量是巨大的。岩石是否很重，是否像北愛爾蘭巨人堤一樣，有着巨大的結晶玄武岩形狀?那就是一場緩慢，溫和的噴發。

最劇烈的噴發發生在大洋中間深深的海底，新的熔岩將大陸撕開，每年將大西洋加寬五釐米。觀察一下火山、地震和像菲律賓和日本這樣的羣島，你就會看到被稱爲地殼板塊的大致輪廓——地殼板塊組成了地球的地殼和地幔。這其中最明顯的例子就是太平洋上的“火環”，那裏曾經發生過最劇烈的噴發——馬尼拉附近的Pinatubo噴發，洛基山脈中的聖海倫山噴發，還有十年前的墨西哥EI Chichón山噴發，更不用提1883年蘇丹海峽喀拉喀託山震驚世界的噴發。

D然而火山噴發並不總是能被預測，那是因爲地質時間與人類時間不同。在休眠期，火山用熔岩將自己蓋起來，用溢出火山口的熔岩形成堅硬的錐型體，隨後熔岩慢慢冷卻成爲又大又哽，穩固的巖頸，巖頸會阻止進一步的噴發，直到壓力大到無法抵擋爲止。拿Pinatubo山爲例，這個過程花了600年。

然而，有時候，只有一個小小的徵兆，火山就噴發了。1902年5月8日早上7點49分，Martinique的Pelée山爆發了。28，000人的城鎮，只有兩人倖存。在1815年，一次突然噴發炸掉了印度尼西亞的Tambora山1,280米的山頂。那次噴發如此劇烈，以至於噴進平流層的火山灰遮蔽了天空，使得歐洲和美洲直接進人秋季。六月下雪，八月上霜，糧食因此而歉收，上千人忍飢挨餓，火山，尤其是那些安靜的火山，是潛在的世界新聞。

Passage3

參考譯文

Obtaining Linguistic Data

獲得語言資料

A我們有很多種可以用來獲得語言資料的方式。這些方法既可以是精心準備，深入細緻的國外實地調査，也可以是在自家搖椅上進行的，對母語的一次不經意的反思。

B無論用何種方式，總有人要充當語言資料的來源——這個人就叫做資料提供者。資料提供者(理想狀態下)應該是以該語言爲母語的人，他可以提供做分析之用的語句，還可以給出有關該語言的其他信息(如翻譯，正誤評判，用法判斷等)。在研究本國語言時，語言學家本人往往充當資料提供者一角，比照他們的直覺，來對語句的歧義現象、可接受度及其他特性加以評判。這種方法因其便利性而被廣泛使用，而且還被看作是生成式語言研究方式的規範。然而，一名語言學家的個人判斷通常要麼是不確定的，要麼就與其他語言學家的意見相左，此時就需要求助於更爲客觀的提問方式，讓語言學家本人以外的人來充當資料提供者。

C在研究外語及兒童語言的時候，第二種方式是不可避免的在選擇資料提供人的時候要考慮多種因素——你面對的是單個說話人(當語言從未被描述過的時候出現的通常狀況)，還是兩個人互動;是小組還是大規模的樣本。年齡、性別、社會背景以及身份的其他方面都很重要，因爲據信這些因素會影響使用語言的類別。對話的話題和社交場合的特徵(比如正式程度)也極其相關;同樣，資料提供者的個人資質(比如語言流暢度和連貫性)也十分重要。對於較大規模的研究來說，要對所採用的抽樣方式一絲不苟，而且無論在什麼情況下，都要決定採用最好的調查技術。

D如今，語言研究者通常都會爲資料提供人錄音。這就使語言學家針對這些語言的某些論斷變得可以接受檢查，並且還能提供一種使這些觀點更爲精確的方式(反覆聽“難”懂的語言)。但是想要獲得自然的，高質量的資料可沒那麼容易。當得知被錄音的時候，人們說話的方式就不同了，而且音質可以很差。因此，一系列的錄音方式就被設計出來以便儘可能地解除研究者的矛盾(如何能夠觀察人們的行爲方式又不讓他們知道正在被觀察)。有時候，說話人是在毫不知情的情況下被錄音的——這一方式可以獲得極自然的材料，但是道德方面的反對意見也是預料之中的事。另外，也可以嘗試讓說話人忘記錄音這回事，比如把錄音機藏起來，或是使用無線麥克風。還有一種管用的方式，就是提出一個說話人能夠迅速融入的話題，從而激發一種自然的語言風格(比如詢問年長的資料提供者：在他們的家鄉，時代是如何變遷的)。

E然而，磁帶錄音的方式並不能夠解決語言學家面臨的所有問題。講話通常又不清楚，又有歧義。因此，如果可能的話，要對參與者的非語言行爲以及整體語境做出書面評述，作爲對錄音的補充。例如，一個面部表情就可以徹底改變一句話的意思。在很大情況下，可以用錄像方式避免這樣的問題，但是就算是這個方式也存在侷限性(攝像機不可能安得到處都是)，而且文字謄本總是要得益於觀察者另外提供的註解。

F語言學家還需要大量使用結構化會議，當中他們系統地要求資料提供者說出有關某種動作、物體及行爲的語句。如果資料提供者是說雙語的，或者通過翻譯的幫助，我們就有可能用到翻譯技巧(比如你們怎麼說桌子這個詞)。通過使用面試表格和調查問卷，我們能夠在很短的時間裏覆蓋大量的知識點。通常，研究者只想獲得有關某個語言變項的信息，在這種情況下，就必須使用一套嚴格設置好的問題：比如說，發音上的某個特殊規則，可以用要求資料提供者讀出一組嚴格設定的單詞的方法引出來。我們還有幾種直接的誘導方式，比如讓資料提供人填寫替換表中的空格(比如：我__看到一輛汽車)，或者給他們做改錯練習(“能不能說我能不看到?”)。

G爲了語言分析而被編纂起來的語言代表樣本被叫做語料庫。語料庫使得語言學家能夠對一種用法的頻率加以客觀陳述，而且還可以爲其他的研究者所用。語料庫的範圍和規模是各不相同的。有些語料庫試圖將語言作爲一個整體來研究，從不同類型的文章中節選材料;其他的則十分挑剔，只提供針對某個特殊語言現象的一組材料。語料庫的大小是由實踐因素決定的，比如說可以用來蒐集、處理、存儲資料的時間：要想爲幾分鐘的演講做一個精確的原文，可能要花上數小時的時間。有時候，個小資料樣本就足以證明一種語言學假說。相反地，重大研究項目的語料庫加起來足有上百萬字。一個重要的原則是，無論大小，所有的語料庫在覆蓋面上都不可避免地存在侷限性，因此，它們總是需要通過內省或實驗的方式，被源自母語者直覺的資料補充。

　劍橋雅思閱讀4原文解析(test3)

Question 1

答案：A

關鍵詞：box/beginning

定位原文：標題下方方框中

解題思路：題目是問文章開頭的方框當中的引言是什麼意思。A答案：exemplify例證;舉……例子;B答案是解釋國際流浪兒童組織建立的原因;C答案：outline描述，描畫輪廓;D答案中highlight是指突出、強調。很明顯引言是在舉例子，故正確答案選A。

Question 2

答案：D

關鍵詞：purpose/S.K.I

定位原文：Introduction部分第2段首句“Over the past nine years, …lives of street children.”

解題思路：“to support the economic lives of street children...等同於D答案，而其他三個選項基本未提到。

Question 3

答案：C

關鍵詞：reason/end up

定位原文：Background部分的第一段首句“Typically, children do not end up on … and violence.”

解題思路：…the demand for income at home...等同於poverty，而D答案crime並不是兒童流浪的原因，而是其可能產生的後果。

Question 4

答案：C

關鍵詞：independent

定位原文：Background部分的第2段最後1句“Many children may choose entrepreneurship because it allows them a degree of independence,”

解題思路：A,B,D三個答案都比較極端，只有C符合本文的主題。children獨立的方式是“choose entrepreneurship”與C選項中的“set up their own businesses”是同義替換，故C 正確。

Question 5

答案：Sudan/India

關鍵詞：country/courier service

定位原文：Street Business Partnerships部分第1點“The S.K.I. Bicycle Courier Service first started in the Sudan. Participants in this enterprise were supplied with bicycles, which they used to deliver parcels and messages, and which they were required to pay for gradually from their wages. A similar program was taken up in Bangalore, India.”

解題思路：提供courier service的兩個國家分別是Sudan和India。

Question 6

答案：bicycles

關鍵詞：courier service

定位原文：Street Business Partnership部分第1點

解題思路：題幹中的provision是文中provide的變形，所以這裏的正確答案是bicycles。

Question 7

答案：Shoe Shine Collective

關鍵詞：Dominican Republic

定位原文：Street Business Partnership部分第2點“Another successful project, The Shoe Shine Collective, was a partnership program with the Y.W.C.A. in the Dominican Republic. In this project, participants were lent money to purchase shoe shine boxes. They were also given a safe place to store their equipment, and facilities for individual savings plans.”

解題思路：定位到原文，可知答案是Shoe Shine Collective。

Question 8

答案：life skills

關鍵詞：Zambia

定位原文：Street Business Partnership部分第3點“The Youth Skills Enterprise Initiative in Zambia is a joint program with the Red Cross Society and the Y.W.C.A. Street youths are supported to start their own small business through business training, life skills training and access to credit.”

解題思路：定位到該句話末尾，可知正確答案是life skills。

Question 9

答案：NO

關鍵詞：set up/money

定位原文：Lessons learned部分第1點“Being an entrepreneur is not for everyone, for every street child.”

解題思路：很明顯文中說的不是對於每個人來說的，所以答案應該是NO。

Question 10

答案：NOT GIVEN

關鍵詞：families/S.K.I.

定位原文：Lessons learned部分第4點“There are tremendous advantages to involving parents or guardians in the program, where such relationships exist. Home visits allow staff the opportunity to know where the participants live, and to understand more about each individual's situation.”

解題思路：這一點當中雖然提到了流浪兒童的家人，但是並沒有說明他們是否要從S.K.I.那裏得到幫助，屬於純粹未提及型的NOT GIVEN。

Question 11

答案：NO

關鍵詞：loan

定位原文：Lessons learned部分第5點“Small loans are provided initially for …ranged from US30?30?100.”

解題思路：題目當中如果含有ONLY/ONE這樣的詞，往往選NO。從文中我們也可以看出孩子們不只可以申請一筆貸款。

Question 12

答案：YES

關鍵詞：pay back

定位原文：Lessons learned部分第6點“All S.K.I. programs have charged interest on the loans, primarily to get the entrepreneurs used to the concept of paying interest on borrowed money. Generally the rates have been modest (lower than bank rates).”

解題思路：All S.K.I. programs have charged interest on the loans.所有的計劃都要收取利息，也就是要多還一點錢。

Question 13

答案：A

關鍵詞：conclude

定位原文：Conclusion部分“However, we believe that credit must be extended in association with other types of support...”

解題思路：根據conclude可以定位到conclusion部分，根據“credit must be extended in association with other types of support”可知正確答案是A。

Question 14

答案：iii

關鍵詞：無

定位原文：A部分：第一段首句Volcanoes are the ultimate earth-moving machinery. 第二段：Eruptions have rifted continents…a basement of volcanic basalt.

第三段開頭:Volcanoes have not only made the continents，they are also thought to have made the world's first stable atmosphere and...

解題思路：A部分說明了火山活動的作用，正好和iii選項中的火山與地球的特徵吻合，因此答案爲iii。

Question 15

答案：i

關鍵詞：無

定位原文：B部分：第1段：整個段落描述了火山爆發的起因。第二段最後：

These fracture zones, where the collisions occur, are where earthquakes happen. And，very often, volcanoes.

解題思路：通過掃描這兩個段落，發現其中主要將地球比喻成一個雞蛋，並且由此說明了火山爆發的原因。因此答案應該是i。

Question 16

答案：iv

關鍵詞：無

定位原文：第2段：Sometimes,it is slow...第3段;Sometimes the magma moves very swiftly indeed. 第4段：The biggest eruptions are deep on the mid-ocean floor.

解題思路：此部分出現了大量的火山名字，由此我們可以預測該段落講的是火山噴發的不同類型。因此答案是iv。

Question 17

答案：vi

關鍵詞：無

定位原文：第1段：But volcanoes are not very predict?able.

解題思路：vi答案是說火山爆發的不可預測性。

Question 18

答案： plates/the tectonic plates/the plates

關鍵詞：sections of the earth's crust/volcanic activity

定位原文：C部分的第4段第2句“ you can see the rough outlines of what are called tectonic plates--the plates which make up the earth's crust and mantle.”

解題思路：很明顯，應該是被叫做the tectonic plates。

Question 19

答案：magma

關鍵詞：molten rock from the mantle

定位原文：C部分第2段第1句：Sometimes it is slow: vast bubbles of magma—molten rock from the mantle…

解題思路：根據關鍵詞定位，可知答案爲magma。

Question 20

答案：ring of fire

關鍵詞：zone/the Pacific Ocean

定位原文：C部分第4段第3句：The most dramatic of these is the Pacific “ring of fire”...

解題思路：根據定位句信息可知正確答案是ring of fire。

Question 21

答案：600 years/for 600 years/600

關鍵詞：Mount Pinatubo/inactive

定位原文：D部分第1段最後一句：In the case of Mount Pinatubo, this took 600 years.

解題思路：根據定位句信息可知正確答案是600 years。

Question 22

答案：water

關鍵詞：produce/atmosphere

定位原文：A部分的第3段第1句：Volcanoes have not only made the continents, they are also thought to have made the world's first stable atmosphere and provided all the water for the oceans, rivers and ice-caps.

解題思路：火山不僅製造出陸地，也爲地球提供了大氣，爲海洋、河川和冰帽提供了水。

Question 23

答案：magma/lava

關鍵詞：different types of eruptions /moves slowly

定位原文：Sometimes it is slow: vast bubbles of magma—molten rock from the mantle—inch to?wards the surface.

解題思路：首先可以根據之前做過的LIST OF HEADINGS題判定，C部分講到了不同類型的火山爆發。然後尋找slowly這個詞。根據定位句信息可知正確答案是magma。

Question 24

答案：(west) India

關鍵詞：quickly/horizontally Northern Ireland/Wales/South Africa

定位原文：C部分第2段第2句：Sometimes—as in Northern Ireland, Wales and the Karoo in South Africa一the magma rose faster，and then flowed out horizontally on to the surface in vast thick sheets. In the Deccan Plateau in western India, …

解題思路：此處要求填一個地名，根據定位句信息可知正確答案爲(west) India。

Question 25

答案：explodes

關鍵詞：third/lava/very quickly/violently

定位原文：C部分第3段前3句：Sometimes the magma moves very swiftly indeed. It does not have time to cool as it surges upwards. The gases trapped in side the boiling rock expand suddenly, the lava glows with heat, it begins to froth, and it exploded with tremendous force.

解題思路：這個空要求填一個動詞，而且要注意時態。根據定位句信息可知正確答案爲explodes。

Question 26

答案：gases

關鍵詞： magma/emitted

定位原文：C部分第3段：Sometimes the magma moves very swiftly indeed. It does not have time to cool as it surges upwards. The gases trapped in side the boiling rock expand suddenly,...

解題思路：emit是“發射，發出”的意思，跟文中的expand屬於同義替換，故正確答案應該是gases。

Question 27

答案：D

關鍵詞：recording

定位原文：D段首句“Today, researchers often tape-record informants.”

解題思路：題幹問的剛好是哪一段講到了錄音對人們談話方式的影響。故答案是D。

Question 28

答案：E

關鍵詞：body language

定位原文：E段第3句“Where possible, therefore, the recording has to be supplemented by the observer's written comments on the non-verbal behavior of the participants,...”

解題思路：題幹問的是哪一段講到了記錄人們肢體語言的重要性。故答案是E。

Question 29

答案：C

關鍵詞：social situation

定位原文：C段第2句“Age, sex，social background and other aspects of identity are important, as these factors are known to influence the kind of language used.”

解題思路：題目問的是哪段提到了語言受到社會背景的影響。故答案是C。

Question 30

答案：D

關鍵詞：self-conscious

定位原文：D段第6句“Some recordings are made without speakers being aware of the fact — a procedure that obtains very natural data,...”

解題思路：題目問的是哪一段提到了如何幫助資料提供者變得自然一點。故答案是D。

Question 31

答案：F

關鍵詞：specific data various methods

定位原文：F段第3句和最後一句“A large number of points can be covered in a short time, using interview work-sheets and questionnaires.”

“There are also several direct methods of elicitation,…”

解題思路：題目問的是哪段提到了產生詳細信息的不同方式。答案是F。

Question 32

答案： (the) linguists (acts)/(the) linguist (act)

關鍵詞：convenient/not objective enough

定位原文：B段倒數第2句“Often, when studying their mother tongue, linguists act as their own informants, judging the ambiguity, acceptability, or other properties of utterances against their own intuitions. The convenience of this approach makes it widely used, and it is considered the norm in the generative approach to linguistics.”

解題思路：根據定位句信息可知答案爲linguists act。

Question 33

答案：foreign languages

關鍵詞：non-linguist

定位原文：B段最後兩句：…at which point recourse is needed to more objective methods of enquiry, using non-linguists as informants. The latter procedure is unavoidable when working on foreign languages, or child speech.

解題思路：根據定位句信息可知答案爲foreign languages。

Question 34

答案：(the) (poor) quality

關鍵詞：recording/sound

定位原文：D段第3-4句“But obtaining naturalistic, good-quality data is never easy. People talk abnor?mally when they know they are being recorded, and sound quality can be poor. ”

解題思路：根據定位句信息可知答案爲(the)(poor)quality。

Question 35

答案：facial expression

關鍵詞：video/speaker

定位原文：E段第4句“A facial expression, for example, can dramatically alter the meaning of what is said.”

解題思路：根據定位句信息可知答案爲facial expression。

Question 36

答案：video recording/camera/video camera/recording

關鍵詞：video/miss certain things

定位原文：E段最後一句“Video recording avoid these problems to a large extent, but even they have limitations (the camera cannot be everywhere), and transcriptions always bene?fit from any additional commentary provided by an observer.”

解題思路：根據定位句信息可知答案爲video recording/camera/video camera/recording。

Question 37

答案：fre?quency of usage

關鍵詞：comment

定位原文：G段第2句“A corpus enables the linguists to make unbiased statements about fre?quency of usage,...”

解題思路：這裏的make unbiased statements about和題幹中的comment objectively on是同義替換，故正確答案爲fre?quency of usage。

Question 38

答案：particular linguistic feature

關鍵詞：while/focus on

定位原文：G段第4句“Some corpora attempt to cover the language as a whole, taking extracts from many kinds of text; others are extremely selective, providing a collection of material that deals only with a particular linguistic feature.”

解題思路deals only with和focus on在這裏是同義替換，故正確答案爲particular linguistic feature。

Question 39

答案：size

關鍵詞：length of time

定位原文：The size of the corpus depends on practical factors, such as the time available to collect, process and store the data.

解題思路：corpus的size取決於很多因素，例如時間等，所以題幹中時間的長短會影響的應該是corpus的size。

Question 40

答案：intuitions

關鍵詞：those who speak

定位原文：G段最後一句“An important principle is that all corpora, whatever their size，are inevitably limited in their coverage, and always need to be supplemented by data de?rived from the intuitions of native speakers of the language, through either introspection or experimentation.”

解題思路：根據定位信息，可知正確答案爲intuitions。

劍橋雅思閱讀4原文翻譯及答案解析(test3)

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